Table Of Content
This has implications for the way in which statistical significance is determined (see the later section “Analytical Implications for Randomization Tests”). Further complications in reporting and data analysis arise by the use of combinations of designs (Ledford & Gast, 2018; Moeyaert et al., 2020), such as embedding an ATD within a multiple baseline design or within a reversal design. When randomization is used, the terms “ATD with block randomization” and “ATD with restricted randomization” should be used to reduce ambiguity. Multiple quantitative methods for single-case experimental design data have been applied to multiple-baseline, withdrawal, and reversal designs. In addition, several recently developed graphical representations are presented, alongside the commonly used time series line graph. The quantitative and graphical data analytic techniques are illustrated with two previously published data sets.
Andy LeCompte Salon
Any tentative recommendation that we made in the current manuscript has to consider the tradition for data analysis in different fields. Visual inspection has long been the first choice for investigators (Barlow et al., 2009; Sidman, 1960). The data analysis focuses on the degree to which the data path for one condition is differentiable from (and clearly superior to) the data path for the other condition (Ledford et al., 2019).
Illustrations and Comparison of the Results
As with each of the issues discussed in this section, there are advantages and disadvantages to the regression and non-regression methods for determining effect size for SSEDs. Nonregression methods involve simpler hand calculations, map on to visual inspection of the data, and are less biased in the presence of small numbers of observations (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1998). Regression methods are less sensitive to outliers, control for trend in the data, and may be more sensitive to detecting treatment effects in slope and intercept (Gorman & Allison, 1996).
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Real World Example of Alternating Treatment Design in ABA
First, the time-out component of the intervention was removed, leaving the FCT component alone. In the third phase of the component analysis, the FCTcomponent was removed, leaving time-out and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). Again, a decreasing trend in signing and an increasing trend in hand biting were observed, which were again reversed when the full treatment package was applied. The study by Seaver and Bourret (2014) is promising in that the authors controlled many instructional variables as a first step toward understanding the effectiveness and efficiency of prompt-fading procedures, when prompt topographies are potent enough to evoke correct responding. For instance, Seaver and Bourret taught tasks that may not have been functional or age appropriate for all participants (i.e., the same task was targeted for individuals whose ages varied from 7 to 20) and the assessments were comprehensive. This area warrants additional studies to increase both social and external validity, such as educationally relevant and functional tasks for children, briefer assessments to enhance the applications of such procedures to naturalistic settings, and research with additional populations.
The Need for Quantifications Complementing Visual Analysis
We approach this issue by breaking it into four related but distinct parts that include detecting effects, determining their magnitude and the quality of the causal inference, and data-based decision making. Space considerations preclude treating any one aspect of this issue exhaustively (suggestions for further reading are provided). Hypothetical data demonstrating unambiguous changes in level (Panel A), trend (Panel B), and variability (Panel C).
Review of Methods to Equate Target Sets in the Adapted Alternating Treatments Design
As a result, it is possible that the order in which the interventions are given will affect the results. For example, the effects of two interventions may be additive, so that the effects of Intervention 2 are enhanced beyond what they should be because Intervention 2 followed Intervention 1. Alternatively, Intervention 1 may have measurable but delayed effects on the dependent variable, making it appear that Intervention 2 is effective when the results should be attributed to Intervention 1. Such possibilities should be considered when multi-treatment studies are being planned (see Hains & Baer, 1989, for a comprehensive discussion of multiple-treatment interference). A final, longer phase in which the final “winning” treatment is implemented for an extended time can help alleviate some of the concerns regarding multiple-treatment interference.
This basic reversal design can also be extended with the reintroduction of the treatment (ABAB), another return to baseline (ABABA), and so on. Overall, visual inspection of these data provides a strong argument for the necessity of both the FCT and time-out components in the effectiveness of the treatment package, and no indications of noneffect are present in the data. This is because (a) the final two final treatment phases do not include the minimum of three data points and (b) the individual treatment component phases (FCT only and time-out/DRO) were implemented only once each. As a result, the data from this study could not be used to support the treatment package as an evidence-based practice by the IES standards. Additional data points within each phase, as well as replications of the phases, would strengthen the study results. An intervention or treatment cannot be considered evidence based following the results of a single study.
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Riley-Tillman and Burns (2009) argued that effect size estimates may make valuable contributions for future quantitative syntheses; however, for a given practitioner, data interpretation and subsequent practice decisions are driven more by slope changes, not by average effect sizes. Exact p values are generated, and the tests appear to be straightforward ways to supplement the visual analysis of single-subject data. It should be noted, however, that randomization tests in and of themselves do not necessarily address the problem of autocorrelation. Number of correct responses and tongue clicks during discrete trial training sessions in Spanish (Sp.) and English (Eng.) using an alternating treatments design. From “Effects of language instruction on response accuracy and challenging behavior in a child with autism,” by Lang et al., 2011, Journal of Behavioral Education, 20, p. 256.
Participants
Thus, when multiple baselines are conducted across participants, one or more individuals may wait some time before receiving a potentially beneficial intervention. RCTs do have many specific advantages related to understanding causal relations by addressing methodological issues that may compromise the internal validity of research studies. Kazdin (2010), however, compellingly argued that certain characteristics of SSEDs make them an important addition and alternative to large-group designs. He argued that RCTs may not be feasible with many types of interventions, as resources for such large-scale studies may not be available to test the thousands of treatments likely in use in any given field.
Visual analysis of the results supports the effectiveness of the intervention in that there was an immediate change in unprompted question-asking with the implementation of the intervention for all three children, with no overlap between the baseline and intervention phases. As a result, this study provides strong evidence that the question-asking intervention results in increases in collateral question-asking. By contrast, Panel B of Figure 2 shows a data set in which an increasing trend is present during the baseline phase.
Specifically, in the current study, the prompt topography assessment consisted of assessing responding to different antecedent stimuli (e.g., gestural, physical), without fading those prompts or conducting tests of generality. In clinical settings, the development and implementation of such assessments may help maximize the efficiency of training in the long run. For example, identifying effective and efficient prompt-fading procedure and using those procedures consistently across skills and domains might result in acquiring more skills as compared to making procedural decisions in the absence of such data. Task analyses of interventionist responses were developed for each condition of the prompt hierarchy comparison. An independent observer rated whether the interventionist correctly or incorrectly engaged in each response.
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